Cleopatra 7 was the last queen of Egypt’s Ptolemaic dynasty, and according to historians, her reign was filled with intense political turmoil and constant military pressure.
According to Plutarch and Cassius Dio, internal conflict began in Egypt as soon as she took power.
The struggle for the throne between Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy 12th had divided the army as well.
At that time, Greek-origin military units, native Egyptian soldiers, and groups of mercenaries were loyal to different leaders, creating a near–civil war situation in the country.
Ancient historians write that during this internal conflict, Julius Caesar arrived in Egypt and intervened to resolve the dispute between the siblings.
Caesar’s presence made the military situation even more fragile, because supporters of Ptolemy began intense fighting in the royal city of Alexandria.
This battle is known as the Alexandrian War, which Plutarch describes in detail.
During this conflict, incidents of arson and siege occurred in the palace district, the harbor, and the library area. By aligning her power with Caesar, Cleopatra not only succeeded in stopping the war but also regained control of the throne.
After Caesar’s assassination, civil war erupted in Rome, and its effects fell directly on Egypt.
To secure her kingdom’s survival, Cleopatra allied herself with Mark Antony, who commanded Rome’s eastern armies.
As a result of this alliance, military activity in Egypt increased.
According to Cassius Dio, Antony assembled a naval fleet in Egypt’s ports and strengthened his position in the eastern Mediterranean, as a major confrontation with Octavian appeared inevitable.
This confrontation ultimately emerged in the form of the Battle of Actium (31 BCE), which both Strabo and Roman official records describe as decisive.
In this naval battle, the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra were unable to withstand Octavian’s organized Roman fleet.
After defeat, the two retreated to Egypt, where conditions worsened further.
Octavian’s forces advanced toward Egypt and reached the gates of Alexandria.
Shortages of food, an exhausted army, and political despair left little strength for continued resistance.
When Octavian captured Alexandria, Plutarch states that Cleopatra chose to take her own life rather than face captivity and humiliation at the hands of the Roman conqueror.
The traditional account says she ended her life using a venomous snake, although some historians suggest the possibility of a poisonous compound instead.
With Cleopatra’s death, the Ptolemaic kingdom came to an end, and Egypt formally became a province of Rome.
